Blackwell Reference Online

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The concept of hardiness enjoyed some popularity in the 1980s and 1990s after it was introduced by Khoshaba and Maddi to denote individuals who were more constitutionally resilient to stress and better able to adjust to change. Its elements were conceived as a mix of positive commitments, a sense of control over one's life, and an orientation to change as a challenge for creative response. Despite its attractiveness, the idea suffered from problems of measurement and empirical validation. Alternative ways of viewing the phenomenon can be found in ideas of trait‐like positive and negative emotionality within personality theory and measurement, and conservation of resources in stress theory. See also burnout ; emotion in organizations ( 1991 ). Hardiness: A review of theory and research . Health Psychology , 11 , 335 – 45 . ( 2002 ). The personality construct of hardiness II: Relationships with comprehensive tests of personality and psychopathology . Journal of Research in Personality , 36 ( 1 ), 72 – 85 . This effect, observed in field experiments, occurs when: 1 one or more changes or manipulations are made by researchers in a field setting; 2 the persons in the target sample experiencing the change(s) are aware of the experimental manipulations; and 3 the latter alter their behavior not because of the specific variables manipulated but because of the attention ... log in or subscribe to read full text