Blackwell Reference Online

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E thics, philosophy of action, philosophy of religion Some things are done to achieve a further goal or purpose and are means to ends. If a thing is done not for some purpose outside itself but for its own sake, it is an end in itself, but an end can also be a means to a higher end. In line with this reasoning, many philosophers infer that there is an ultimate or final end , which is an end in an absolute sense. Such means–end reasoning, called a teleological approach or analysis [from Greek telos , end], is applied in both theology and ethics. Some philosophers hold that rationality is restricted to selecting means as instruments to achieve ends that are given non-rationally, while others hold that the selection of ends is also a matter for reason. Modern teleological ethics, represented by utilitarianism , claims that acts should be judged by their consequences, including the ends they realize. Deontology , which holds that acts should be judged according to their motive or duty rather than by their consequences, also uses the distinction between means and ends, with Kant 's categorical imperative requiring that we treat rational beings as ends rather than merely as means. Aristotle had another conception of the means–ends relation. Rather than being merely instrumental, a means can be constitutive of an end or be a major component of the end. This later conception ... log in or subscribe to read full text