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Variables (indicators, items) are an important concept in methods of social research and epistemology. A variable is a superordinated attribute, characteristic, or finding that exists in at least two distinct subordinated categories (classes, groups, units of measurement, values). Cases (individuals) can differ – vary – on the variable concerning the category they belong to. Variables thus are used to classify cases. Very often, cases are persons as members of an organization, a region, a nation, etc. Note that in statistical terminology “individuals” and “persons” are not the same. Instead, many different types of cases can be conceptualized. Some examples are given in table 1 . These cases can be assigned to categories of variables. For example, if John Smith was an American man voting for the Republicans and favoring tax cuts, he could be ascribed the attribute “male” on the variable “gender,” “American” on the variable “nationality,” “Republican” on the variable “preferred political party,” and “in favor of tax cuts” on the variable “attitude towards tax cuts.” Following the same logic, the film Titanic could be referred to the category “1997” on the variable “production year,” “PG-13” on the variable “rating,” and “11” on the variable “number of Oscars won.” Similarly, any type of case can be assigned to categories of variables. Applying this principle, all cases of a sample ... log in or subscribe to read full text