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Initial consonant mutation is one of the best known, although not best understood, phonological characteristics of the Celtic languages: the initial consonant of a word form undergoes a systematic alternation with a phonetically distinct consonant in specific contexts. (On mutation in languages other than Celtic see chapter 65 : consonant mutation .) As an example of such a systematic alternation in the initial consonant of a word, consider Welsh. The Welsh word for ‘father’, tad , has four distinct forms: the citation form tad [taːd], the “soft mutation” form dad [daːd], the “aspirate mutation” form thad [θaːd], and the “nasal mutation” form nhad [ aːd]. Which of these four forms occurs in any particular instance depends on the wider context in which the word appears, as discussed below. Here we see that following the 2nd person singular possessive pronoun tad mutates to dad , following the 3rd person feminine singular possessive pronoun tad mutates to thad , and following the 1st person singular possessive pronoun tad mutates to nhad . The number and nature of the mutations differ between the modern Celtic languages, though there are some overarching similarities across the family, such as mutations following specific prepositions, mutations associated with particular grammatical contexts, and so forth. Within each of the two branches of the Celtic family, ... log in or subscribe to read full text